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1 引言
隨著工廠、制造廠生產活動的結束,出現了很多被廢棄的閑置土地。對很多國家、城市、政府和社區而言,改變城市環境的一種現存形式就是對產業遺址(或稱棕地)的改造和振興。這些產業遺址由于過去的工業生產的影響,現在已經破敗不堪,土壤遭到污染,對周邊環境造成干擾和破壞。棕地改造不僅僅限于場地外觀的轉變,或針對從前的產業環境進行整合,使能量耗盡、如今使用價值已經降低的土地簡單恢復到高水平的生產能力,其實它標志著景觀設計師在處理這種有爭議的土地時,必須深刻轉變方式方法。這是因為即便生產過程早已結束,棕地仍然是具有高度爭議性的國土景觀,這與重工業時代的副產品密切相關(如空曠的建筑,閑置的運河、鐵軌、溝渠、廢料場等基礎設施,以及有毒的土壤和地下水)。這種改造集中在當前既成環境部分,現在城市景觀設計的趨勢是開放空間、“綠地”和基礎設施等規劃設計的規模將會大大超過廢棄棕地上產業遺址改造和再利用的規模。總體而言,產業遺址是視覺上令人驚嘆、但卻被遺忘的景觀,是被破壞、荒廢、但最終可以補救的場地。在21世紀,這對任何國家而言都顯得非常重要。可以說,棕地是很普遍的一類場地,它存在于任何國家和大洲,在當代政治、生態、文化、經濟和美學層面上也最具爭議性。
從全球角度來看,1995年²的統計數字表明:全世界325億公頃土地中有32.2%的土地屬于建成用地、被污染的廢棄地、鐵路、公路或者貧瘠土地。即使保守估計,假定這32.2%的土地中有1%的面積是被污染的廢棄地,在世界范圍內這個數字也超過了10億公頃。但是,棕地的概念和界定在不同大洲和國家都明顯不同。在美國,2002年1月³頒布的最新棕地法案認定:棕地屬于不動產范疇。這些不動產由于危險品和污染物的存在或潛在威脅而難以進行擴展、振興和再利用。在歐洲,棕地是指城市中未被完全開發的地區,無論被污染與否,從時間上可以追溯到工業革命的第一階段,在英國是從1800—1914年,德國1870—1940年,東歐和南歐多為1900—1970年。雖然大多數早期的棕地設計都集中在歐洲和北美,但都并未制訂專門針對棕地的法律。中國已經通過了《環境影響評價法》,并正在考慮修改《固體廢物污染環境防治法》。這表明,雖然工業化進程和環境改造之間的關系因各個國家的地理、文化和法律體系各異而不同,但對此都存在共同利益,對這類景觀場地的關注與日俱增。
2 場地
被污染的河道、化工廠、儲油設施、垃圾場、鋼廠、冶煉廠、廢棄濱水地區、鐵道區、礦山和采石場、電鍍廠和紡織廠(圖4),這些都屬于目前需要進行景觀復原、改造和設計的棕地再生型場地。這類場地和景觀設計的關系如何?景觀設計師又如何在這個領域卓有成效地工作?
目前,主要問題并非棕地是否需要利用和振興,也非不論需要與否,對棕地的法律、歸屬權和法規框架進行評估,關鍵是這種產業遺址的改造工作如何進行,特別是在改造過程中棕地與景觀設計的關系如何。地下水和土壤是景觀設計師必須面對的最為普遍的被污染媒介。此外,在運河、池塘、湖泊和河流中也發現了大量其他污染物如污染沉淀物、地下潛水、地下儲油罐、過濾液、廢礦渣(圖5)。最后,這些產業遺址都保留了原來的廠房和基礎設施,包括鋼筋、水泥和磚石構造的工廠和生產車間,有些甚至可以追溯到100年前,所有這些工業遺產皆因年久失修而遭受不同程度的損害。
如今,被廢棄的產業遺址成為城市中最后一塊可以建造新公園的土地。產業結構調整和棕地的改造有可能大大提升城市生活質量,因此,創造出高水準的公共空間與建造新家園和工廠車間是同樣重要的事情。建立在工業廢地之上的城市公園可以為各種日常聚會和文化活動提供重要的場所。
3 會議和項目
1998年,我在哈佛大學設計研究生院就后工業時代棕地問題組織了一場會展,主題是“生產場地:當前實踐中有關場地技術的國際景觀會展”,目的是為這類環境問題樹立更高的當代視野。在這次會展上,國際上很多科學家、城市和環保專家、景觀設計師(圖6)針對棕地的再利用提出了很多新觀點和案例分析。這些新的研究成果被編輯成冊,名為《生產場地》4。在這些案例中,由彼得· 拉茨主持設計的北杜伊斯堡公園是非常值得關注的項目,這是一項面積達230公頃的原鋼鐵廠改造項目(圖7)。
該項目位于德國魯爾工業區北部,有毒的工業廢物給規劃和設計帶來相當難度。為了讓這個擁有250萬人口的老工業區重新獲得新的投資,首先需要對景觀的基本生態基礎進行修復。設計原理采用了再次詮釋的方法,即對現存的工業構造賦予新的用途,而非單純的破壞(圖8)。
有毒物質包括某些建筑構造和廢棄物既無法從場地運走,也不能忽略不管。在設計中,那些高毒性物質被密封在原先用來堆放礦石的庫房中。石子被磨碎后鋪在地表,形成新的土壤層和步道表層。庫房頂部修建一系列屋頂花園,高低錯落,富于變化。樓梯由被拆除的通道欄桿組裝而成。游人經過這里可以觀察到各種花卉植物的生長(圖9)。
因此,隨著時間的流逝,這個場地、這個公園和花園開始形成一段新的歷史,而人們也會逐漸對這里產生新的認識和理解。整個改造設計融入了該地區的歷史元素,利用和改造了場地在過去的工業生產中所遺留下來的各種遺跡。這種方法為景觀設計提供了一種反常規的嶄新視野,與傳統的“綠地”場地不可等同或發生聯系。對杜伊斯堡公園這類場地規劃需要新的設計方法,即不但要保留場地的實體特征,還要保留場地已遭破損的自然和生態特征。這種新的設想并非要全盤清除然后再重建,而是需要在現存的廢墟上找尋場地存在的合理性(圖10)。
2001年,我會同生態學家羅伯特·法蘭西教授在哈佛設計學院組織了第二次會展,主題為“棕地和污水的改造過程及設計實踐”。這次會展是有關工業遺址改造形式和手段的各種意見的補充,探討21世紀中這些情況各異的棕地如何煥發出新的活力。這些有代表性的棕地包括紐約斯坦頓島FreshKills垃圾場、內華達達斯維加斯灣、倫敦濕地中心和荷蘭阿姆斯特丹的Westergasfabriek公園,這里從前是被污染的煤氣廠,現被改造成一個文化公園(圖11)
Westergasfabriek只是值得關注的過渡性改造項目,現在國際上的注意力正集中在WESTER新區的場地改造和再利用方面,這個項目將為世界其他城市樹立典范,因為在項目成型和實施的過程中有三方面的努力。首先是因為投資方、當地居民和政府官員在改造初期就對這塊場地在文化、社會和民眾生活方面所擁有的潛在價值有著相當的洞察力,即便它屬于曾被廢棄和污染的景觀地帶。不僅如此,這些意見和想法還能夠轉變成一系列清晰而明確的行動,使這塊場地成為暫時的文化棲息地,并在城市的社會層面中發揮越來越重要的作用。從這方面講,Westergasfabriek是指在棕地的原有實體結構上建立過渡性場所,這種改造思路可以幫助其他社區和城市也能重新發現那些廢棄土地的價值。其次是各方對場地改造的認識不但一致,又具有創新性;同時,這種認識也可靈活變通,以滿足所有投資方和當地社區的需要。在這一點上,Westergasfabriek通過各種形式的媒體和活動不斷強化最初的設想,這為其他機構和國家做出示范,表明棕地的改造和再生在社會和文化意義上是非常嚴肅的事情。最后一個方面的努力與場地的實體特征、社會和物質屬性有關,這種努力在Westergasfabriek項目上仍然繼續得到強調。它在公共的開放空間用新興、進步的設計理念將歷史遺跡、結構和空間整合在一起,為其他棕地社區改造指明了方向。
Westergasfabriek煤氣廠建于19世紀,位于市中心,占地12公頃。1960年停產后,已荒廢了40多年。1997年,市政委員會舉辦了一次國際設計招標競賽,就這塊不動產的再利用征集改造方案。來自美國的景觀設計師瑟琳·古斯塔福É深化了獲獎方案。現在公園的整體設計包括遺址部分和鄰近公園,總面積達到124公頃,既可為公共活動提供場所,又具有一定的生態功能(圖11)。
東區朝向阿姆斯特丹中心,屬于歷史景觀公園(圖12)。中區表明這塊土地曾經是體育和工業用地。西區則強調出與自然的和諧。公園的中軸線是整個設計的中心,是連接所有區域和建筑的走廊。項目的第一部分已于2002年春天完工。
結束語
景觀設計師如何重新詮釋棕地功能?是否要在特定地點保持場地本身的自然狀態、工業痕跡,并增加文化功能?此外,景觀設計如何把棕地塑造成與周邊城市建筑的文化功能相一致的景觀地區?仔細觀察,會發現如果拋卻那些有關自然環境和人工環境的陳腐說教,景觀設計師可以在二者之間找到相似之處。這是極具挑戰性的:景觀設計職業應該怎樣在當代的棕地環境中工作,怎樣對現實中復雜機體和人工系統形成新的關注。我們有必要滿足人們的懷舊情結,以明智地的態度對待這類場地。
作者簡介:尼爾·科克伍德 / Niall G. Kirkwood,哈佛大學景觀設計學院院長,教授。
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INTRODUCTION
The productive life of factories, manufacturing plants and industrial production comes to an end, and is replaced by abandonment and dereliction. (fig.1) For many countries, cities, municipalities and communities a current form of engagement with their urban environment is concerned with the reclamation and regeneration of industrial (or brownfield) sites that by virtue of past industrial production uses, are now physically degraded, environmentally disturbed, and chemically contaminated. (fig.2) Brownfields indicate not just a change in physical appearance or a simple return to the highly productive use of exhausted and currently undervalued plots of ground- a tidying up of the past industrial environment, rather it signals a profound shift in the way in which landscape architects must lay claim to this disputed area. Disputed because it is still a highly contentious part of any national landscape, through it’s association with the by-products of heavy industrialization, (vacant buildings, the idled infrastructure of canals, rails, rivers, waste storage, and toxic soils and groundwater), long after manufacturing processes have ceased. This activity concentrates on that part of the current built environment which recent trends in current civic landscape design, open space, ’greenfield’ ¹and infrastructure planning and design have tended to overshadow- the reclamation and reuse of the industrial heritage of derelict brownfield land. Collectively they introduce visually compelling but forgotten landscapes – places of devastation, neglect, but ultimately redeemable and vital in any national vision in the 21st century. (fig.3) The class of site known as ’brownfield’ is universal. That is, it is not only found across every part of every nation and across each continent. It is also currently the most contentious- politically, ecologically, culturally, economically, and aesthetically.
If you look globally at this issue, figures from 1995 ² identify thirty two point two percent (32.2%) of the world’s 32.5 billion acres of land as considered either built-on, polluted wasteland, roads, lanes or barren land. Even if you assume very conservatively that 1% of this thirty two point two percent figure (32.2%) is polluted wasteland this amounts roughly to over 100 million acres world-wide. However brownfield definitions vary significantly between countries and across continents. In the United States the latest brownfield bill in January 2002 ³ states: ’A brownfield site is real property, the expansion, redevelopment, or reuse of which may be complicated by the presence, or potential presence of a hazardous substance, pollutant or contaminant ?" In Europe, brownfield sites are underused urban areas whether contaminated or not, dating from the first phase of industrialization. These are likely to be from 1800- 1914 in the United Kingdom, 1870- 1940 in Germany and 1900- 1970 in much of Eastern and Southern Europe. Although much of the earlier brownfield design work has been focused in Europe and North America and while it has no particular direct brownfield laws, China has strengthened its Environmental Impact Assessment legislation and is considering revisions to its Solid Waste Laws. This suggests that while the correlation between processes of industrialization and environmental transformation are specific to the geography, culture, and legal systems of nations, there exists a common emergence of interest in, and growing concern for this class of landscape site.
SITES
Polluted riverways, chemical factories and oil storage facilities, landfills and waste dumps, steel mills and smelting plants, derelict waterfronts, and railroad yards, industrial mines and quarries, printers, metal finishing factories and textile mills, (fig.4) these are the current types of brownfield regeneration sites in landscape restoration, reclamation and landscape architecture. What is the relationship of these sites to landscape architecture and design? How does the landscape designer work productively in this territory?
The main issue to be addressed is not whether brownfield sites of this type should be reclaimed or redeveloped, or the review of their legal, ownership and regulatory frameworks, however necessary that is. Rather, it is to the precise nature of how this industrial heritage work is to be physically carried out, and specifically, the relationship to landscape design in this endeavor. Groundwater and soils are the most prevalent contaminated media that landscape architects will have to address. In addition, large quantities of other contaminated material such as polluted sediments, subsurface plumes, underground storage tanks, leachate and waste slag are also found in canals, ponds, lagoons and rivers. (fig. 5) Finally there are the physical structures and infrastructure themselves onsite comprising former factories and manufacturing plants in steel, brick and concrete, some of them dating back over 100 years and all in various states of disrepair and dereliction.
Today abandoned industrial sites are simply the last available areas in the urban fabric where new parks can be created. The departure of industry and the remaining brownfield lands creates the chance to make a dramatic improvement in the living qualities of the city, and in this respect the creation of high-quality public space is just as important as the construction of new homes or workspaces. City parks on industrial brownfields can in turn become important places of encounter- as a place for daily gatherings and special cultural events.
CONFERENCES AND PROJECTS
Almost ten years ago in 1998 at the Harvard Graduate School of Design, I organized a conference and exhibition entitled Manufactured Sites: An International Landscape Conference and Exhibition on Site Technologies for Contemporary Practice on the topic of post-industrial brownfield sites that attempted to build a more contemporary vision of this aspect of the built environment. It brought together an international group of scientists, civil and environmental engineers and landscape architects (fig.6) to present new research and case studies of reclaimed brownfield sites that was documented in the ’Manufactured Sites’ publication 4. Of the examples presented the metamorphosis of a former steel works into the 230 hectare Landscape Park Duisburg North by landscape architect Peter Latz stood as an exemplary model. (fig.7)
The project is located in the northern Ruhr area of Germany where toxic waste has set the parameters for site planning and design. To make this area with 2.5 million inhabitants attractive again for new investment, the fundamental ecological base of the landscape was restored. The working method over the site was one of adaptation and reinterpretation, a metamorphosis of industrial structures without destroying them. (fig.8)
The toxic material including existing structures, walls and waste could neither be taken away from the site, nor could it be ignored. The design placed highly toxic material in sealed bunkers that were earlier used to store iron ore. Stones were ground down to become new soil and walking surfaces. A series of roof gardens were built on the bunkers and sown with flowering plants. Staircases were developed from dismantled walkways. Passing over these zones pedestrians can watch the slowly growing gardens, built at various heights and depths within the bunker site. (fig.9)
So bit by bit, another history, another understanding of the contemporary site and this park and garden is developing. The plan integrated the historical dimensions of the area and worked with the by-products of the earlier activities on the site. It suggests a new point of departure in landscape architecture that cannot be equated or associated with traditional ’greenfield’ sites. The task of dealing with contemporary sites such as Duisburg requires new design methods that accept the site’s physical qualities, as well as their destroyed nature and topography. This new vision is not based on a total ’clearing and re-cultivation’rather it seeks its justification within the existing demolished and exhausted forms. (fig.10)
Iorganized three years later in 2001 jointly with ecologist Professor Robert France a second landscape conference and exhibition event at the Harvard Design School titled Brown Fields Gray Waters- Reclamation Processes and Design Practices. This conference and exhibition was an affiliation of different attitudes to what these landscapes might become and how they may be formed and remade in the twenty-first century around such public and varied brownfield sites as the FreshKills Landfill, Staten Island, New York, the Las Vegas Wash, Nevada, the London Wetlands Center, and the Westergasfabriek lands in Amsterdam, Holland- a former polluted gasworks turned park and cultural center. (fig.11)
The former Westergasfabriek site and the cultural programming stands as an exemplary interim project and intense international attention is now focused on the New Westerpark site reclamation and reoccupation as a model for efforts in other urban centers around the world. This recognition is perhaps best explained through three areas of endeavor over the life of this project so far. The first can be directed to the initial perceptions by a variety of stakeholders, residents and city officials of the enormous ongoing cultural, social and civic value of the Westergasfabriek site as a landscape even in it’s former abandoned and polluted state. Not only perceptions but the transformation of these opinions and thoughts into a series of clear and directed actions about the interim cultural inhabitation of the landscape and the increasing visibility of the site in the urban social fabric. In this Westergasfabriek points to the temporary inhabitation in the physical structure of a brownfield site as a working method for other communities and cities to recapture the values of their lost or vacant lands. The second is in the development of a consistent and creative vision for the site that at the same time is robust yet flexible over time and embraces all stakeholders and local communities. In this regard, Westergasfabriek through the consistent reinforcement of the initial vision in all forms of media and activities demonstrates for other agencies and countries the seriousness of the act of brownfield reclamation as a social and cultural endeavor. Finally the areas of endeavor associated with the physical, social and material qualities of the site continue to be underscored on the Westergasfabriek project. The project by folding historic surfaces, structures and places with emerging and progressive ideas in public open space, gives direction to other brownfield communities.
Abandoned in 1960, the nineteenth century inner city 12-acre gasworks site remained desolate for almost four decades. In 1997 the Council held an international design competition in an effort to solicit ideas for the future reuse of the property. American landscape architect Kathryn Gustafson based in Seattle, USA and London, England developed the winning design. The park design now including the industrial grounds with the adjacent park design for a total of 124 acres provides for both city and nature. (fig.11)
The eastern side, towards the center of Amsterdam, is reminiscent of a historical city park; (fig.12) the central area mirrors the use of the landscape as a site for sport and industry; the western side emphasizes harmony with nature¡ (fig.13) The central axis of the park forms the backbone of the plan and is the corridor connecting all areas and buildings. The first part of the project was completed in Spring 2002.
ENDING
How can landscape architects re-interpret the chronology of a brownfield site, be it natural, industrial or cultural in its disposition, in a specific geographic location and secondly how can design shape this site into a landscape consonant with the cultural artifice of the surrounding urban fabric. By looking observantly, without trite moralizing at the natural world as well as the built and disposable world, the landscape architect builds at the great overlap between the two. This suggests a challenging new paradigm for how the landscape profession ought to work within our contemporary brownfield environment, a new quality of attention to the intricate organic and artificial systems of reality. Looking beyond nostalgia for the impossibly pristine, and clear-sighted beyond disgust for the actual present site conditions.